Student writers often confuse the hyphen and dash. A hyphen is a short line (-) used to join words; it occurs on most keyboards as an actual key. A dash is a longer line (—) used to set off or separate phrases; it does NOT occur on most keyboards as an actual key. A dash can be automatically generated in Microsoft Word, however, by typing two hyphens between words like this: A dash--generated with two hyphens--is a useful writing tool. (After you use “space bar” to move away from the word following the double hyphens, MS Word will automatically change it into a dash.) If you are using a word processing program that does not automatically convert double hyphens to a dash, then it is acceptable to use the two hyphens in place of the dash.
Now that we’re clear on that point, let’s focus on the hyphen. If you are looking for infallible rules for when to use the hyphen, you are out of luck: its use is constantly evolving! The following uses, however, are generally agreed upon, with a few exceptions here and there.
~Main Uses~
1. To join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun (a.k.a., a compound modifier)
Examples:
Asbestos is a well-known carcinogen.
Look online for up-to-date images of the oil spill.
Predictions from large-scale global climate models can be a valuable resource for city planners.
Note: When the adjective follows the noun, the words are NOT hyphenated.
Examples:
The carcinogenic properties of asbestos are well known.
The images of the oil spill are up to date.
Predictions from global climate model can be a valuable resource for city planners in spite of the models' large scale.
[In these cases, "well known," “up to date,” and "large scale" follow the nouns they're modifying, so they are not hyphenated.]
2. To join compound numbers under one hundred and fractions
Examples: thirty-five, fifty-two or five-eighths
Hyphens are usually not used with numbers greater than one hundred, unless they occur within the greater number:
Example: one hundred twenty-one
Note: While hyphens are used to write out numbers when required, it is acceptable in most cases to write numbers that are greater than ten numerically (e.g., 12 instead of twelve).
3. To avoid confusion or awkward combinations of letters
Examples:
re-sign a purchase order (vs. resign from a job)
re-creation of the compound (vs. parks and recreation)
re-enter the facility (vs. “reenter”)
4. To avoid ambiguities
Examples:
a little-used car vs. a little used-car
third-world environmental degradation vs. third world environmental degradation
5. To join certain prefixes and suffixes to words.
Examples: Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, all-, half-, semi-, quasi-, non-, post-, and neo-.
self-employed
quasi-normal
post-test
Example: Use a hyphen with the suffix –elect.
president-elect
Example: Use a hyphen between a prefix and a capitalized word or acronym.
pre-NEPA regulation
Example: Use a hyphen and with figures or letters.
mid-1990s
T-shirt
Note: In all of the above cases, there are NO SPACES on either side of the hyphen.
6. To split words between lines when using a justified text format.
Whenever possible, keep a word that isn’t hyphenated together, but when it does get broken at the end of a line, make the break only between syllables or where a word is already hyphenated.
Examples: en-vi-ron-ment-al-ist, warm-ing, plan-ning, or mass-produced
Note: Never put a single letter at the beginning or end of a line and never put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line.
Examples:
extremely (Do not separate to leave “ly” beginning a new line.)
avail-a-ble (Separate only on either side of the a; do not leave the initial “a” at the end of a line.)
~Suspended Hyphens~
Suspended hyphens (a.k.a., “dangling” or “hanging” hyphens) are used in series of related compound words separated by “and” “or” or “to.” In these cases, the hyphen acts as a kind of place holder.
Examples:
The first- and second-year MESM students are brilliant.
The proposed logging site is full of two- and three-hundred-year-old trees.
~Hyphen MYTHS~
1. The hyphen as a separator
The hyphen’s main purpose is to join words, but people still sometimes use it INCORRECTLY as a “separator,” frequently in place of a comma.
Examples:
Once you’ve run the model-add it to your GIS display. (Incorrect)
Once you’ve run the model, add it to your GIS display. (Correct)
Other “separators” that are more appropriate include the period (hyphens can be an indicator of run-on sentences), the colon, the semicolon, or the dash (visit the Communication Center’s blog posts for more information on each of these “separators.”)
2. The hyphen as a delimiter.
Another common mis-use of the hyphen is to delineate internal or parenthetical phrases.
Incorrect Example: Black carbon-unlike greenhouse gases-stays in the atmosphere only for a few weeks.
This incorrectly hyphenated sentence is confusing, because people will read it as
Black carbon-unlike . . .
greenhouse gases-stays . . .
in the atmosphere only for a few weeks.
…when what the writer really meant was
Black carbon . . .
unlike greenhouse gases . . .
stays in the atmosphere only for a few weeks.
This sentence should be correctly written with dashes as follows:
Black carbon—unlike greenhouse gases—stays in the atmosphere only for a few weeks.
~Confusion About Capitalization~
We often get asked whether to capitalize the word following a hyphen in a title. After consulting grammar books, checking journals, and asking editors, we discovered that there is no consensus on whether one practice is more correct than another.
Therefore, both of the following examples are correct:
Predictions from Large-scale Global Climate Models
Predictions from Large-Scale Global Climate Models
We generally prefer the second option, but will post feedback from faculty on this issue.
~~
These tips should help you to correctly use the hyphen, but when in doubt, you can always check a dictionary or a good style reference—or make an appointment at the Communications Center!
~References~
Conrey, S. M., and Stolley, K. (2010). Hyphen Use. Retrieved from the Purdue Online Writing Lab http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/576/1/.
Hester, Z. (2010). The Hyphen. Retrieved from http://zacharyhester.com/site/articles/en_hyphen.html.
Wikipedia. (2010). Hyphen. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen.
--Audrey Tresham
Wednesday, May 26, 2010
Tuesday, May 18, 2010
Fearless Punctuation Tip - Help Save the Endangered Semicolon!
Despite the many benefits it offers, the semicolon is often misunderstood—or even feared—and has become increasingly scarce in modern writing. In this installment of our Fearless Punctuation Series, we provide you with three easy ways that you can bring back the semicolon:
1) If you have two short stand-alone sentences that are related, or provide interesting contrast to one another, you may consider incorporating them into one sentence. Semicolons allow you to join independent clauses without using conjunctions (e.g., and, but, nor, yet).The following examples show instances when semicolons should, and should not, be used to connect clauses.
Example:
A coal transport recently grounded and spilled oil at a coral shoal along the Great Barrier Reef. Park officials and environmentalists are particularly concerned about negative impacts on hatching seabirds and turtles (AFP, 2010).
--Each of these statements can stand alone, but the ideas they contain are related. They can be combined, as shown below.
A coal transport recently grounded and spilled oil at a coral shoal along the Great Barrier Reef; park officials and environmentalists are particularly concerned about effects on hatching seabirds and turtles (AFP, 2010).
--Combining the two statements using a semicolon shows that they are connected.
Example:
Most climate models predict increased temperature and precipitation in the Pacific Northwest. These conditions may favor the spread of insects and pathogens affecting forests (van Mantgem et al., 2009)
--Each of these statements can stand alone, but the ideas they contain are related. They can be combined by using a semicolon or a conjunction, as shown below.
Most climate models predict increased temperature and precipitation in the Pacific Northwest, and these conditions may favor the spread of insects and pathogens affecting forests (van Mantgem et al., 2009).
--If a conjunction is used to connect two clauses, a comma should be used, rather than a semicolon.
Example:
Whole Foods Market offsets its total energy use through wind energy credits. All store locations have also discontinued the use of plastic grocery bags (Loftus, 2010).
--These two statements do not have an obvious connection. Eliminating plastic bags is not related to energy offsets, so it is best to leave these two sentences separate.
2) Semicolons can also help you to connect sentences with internal punctuation.
Example:
Due to public concern about habitat deterioration, a restoration project has been proposed along the Kissimmee River. The primary goal is to return flow to the floodplain (ACOE, 2010).
--These two sentences are related, and the period breaks the relationship between the clauses. They can be combined using a semicolon, as shown below.
Due to public concern about habitat deterioration, a restoration project has been proposed along the Kissimmee River; the primary goal is to return flow to the floodplain (ACOE, 2010).
--A semicolon is appropriate for connecting the two sentences. If a comma had been used, the sentence would have a comma splice error.
3) You may additionally use semicolons as super commas in your writing.
Example:
The United Nations operates offices throughout the globe, including in Nairobi, Kenya; Bankok, Thailand; Santiago, Chile; and Beirut, Lebanon.
--Use a semicolon if you are making a list of items separated with commas, such as locations, names, dates, or descriptions.
Note: If you are in doubt, reading aloud may help you to decide which punctuation is most appropriate.
Comma = brief pause
Semicolon = moderate pause
Period = full stop
A comical illustrated guide to semicolon usage is available at http://theoatmeal.com/comics/semicolon
Also, refer to Jane Straus’ online Blue Book of Grammer at http://www.grammarbook.com/
References:
[ACOE] US Army Corps of Engineers. (2010). Kissimmee River Restoration. Retrieved April 19, 2010, from http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/Divisions/Everglades/Branches/ProjectExe/Sections/UECKLO/KRR.htm
[AFP] Agence France-Presse. (2010). Great Barrier Reef oil spill hits renowned nature sanctuary. Retrieved April 14, 2010, from http://www.grist.org/article/2010-04-14-great-barrier-reef-oil-spill-hits-renowned-nature-sanctuary/
Hacker, D. (1999). A Writer’s Reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Loftus, K. (2010). Our earth day commitment. Retrieved April 14, 2010, from http://blog.wholefoodsmarket.com/category/green-action/
van Mantgem, P.J., Stephenson, N.L., Byrne, J.C. Daniels, L.D., Franklin, J.F., Fule, P.Z., Harmon, M.E., Larson, A.J., Smith, J.M., Taylor, A.H. & Veblen, T.T. (2009). Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science, 323, 521-524.
--Danica Schaffer-Smith
1) If you have two short stand-alone sentences that are related, or provide interesting contrast to one another, you may consider incorporating them into one sentence. Semicolons allow you to join independent clauses without using conjunctions (e.g., and, but, nor, yet).The following examples show instances when semicolons should, and should not, be used to connect clauses.
Example:
A coal transport recently grounded and spilled oil at a coral shoal along the Great Barrier Reef. Park officials and environmentalists are particularly concerned about negative impacts on hatching seabirds and turtles (AFP, 2010).
--Each of these statements can stand alone, but the ideas they contain are related. They can be combined, as shown below.
A coal transport recently grounded and spilled oil at a coral shoal along the Great Barrier Reef; park officials and environmentalists are particularly concerned about effects on hatching seabirds and turtles (AFP, 2010).
--Combining the two statements using a semicolon shows that they are connected.
Example:
Most climate models predict increased temperature and precipitation in the Pacific Northwest. These conditions may favor the spread of insects and pathogens affecting forests (van Mantgem et al., 2009)
--Each of these statements can stand alone, but the ideas they contain are related. They can be combined by using a semicolon or a conjunction, as shown below.
Most climate models predict increased temperature and precipitation in the Pacific Northwest, and these conditions may favor the spread of insects and pathogens affecting forests (van Mantgem et al., 2009).
--If a conjunction is used to connect two clauses, a comma should be used, rather than a semicolon.
Example:
Whole Foods Market offsets its total energy use through wind energy credits. All store locations have also discontinued the use of plastic grocery bags (Loftus, 2010).
--These two statements do not have an obvious connection. Eliminating plastic bags is not related to energy offsets, so it is best to leave these two sentences separate.
2) Semicolons can also help you to connect sentences with internal punctuation.
Example:
Due to public concern about habitat deterioration, a restoration project has been proposed along the Kissimmee River. The primary goal is to return flow to the floodplain (ACOE, 2010).
--These two sentences are related, and the period breaks the relationship between the clauses. They can be combined using a semicolon, as shown below.
Due to public concern about habitat deterioration, a restoration project has been proposed along the Kissimmee River; the primary goal is to return flow to the floodplain (ACOE, 2010).
--A semicolon is appropriate for connecting the two sentences. If a comma had been used, the sentence would have a comma splice error.
3) You may additionally use semicolons as super commas in your writing.
Example:
The United Nations operates offices throughout the globe, including in Nairobi, Kenya; Bankok, Thailand; Santiago, Chile; and Beirut, Lebanon.
--Use a semicolon if you are making a list of items separated with commas, such as locations, names, dates, or descriptions.
Note: If you are in doubt, reading aloud may help you to decide which punctuation is most appropriate.
Comma = brief pause
Semicolon = moderate pause
Period = full stop
A comical illustrated guide to semicolon usage is available at http://theoatmeal.com/comics/semicolon
Also, refer to Jane Straus’ online Blue Book of Grammer at http://www.grammarbook.com/
References:
[ACOE] US Army Corps of Engineers. (2010). Kissimmee River Restoration. Retrieved April 19, 2010, from http://www.saj.usace.army.mil/Divisions/Everglades/Branches/ProjectExe/Sections/UECKLO/KRR.htm
[AFP] Agence France-Presse. (2010). Great Barrier Reef oil spill hits renowned nature sanctuary. Retrieved April 14, 2010, from http://www.grist.org/article/2010-04-14-great-barrier-reef-oil-spill-hits-renowned-nature-sanctuary/
Hacker, D. (1999). A Writer’s Reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Loftus, K. (2010). Our earth day commitment. Retrieved April 14, 2010, from http://blog.wholefoodsmarket.com/category/green-action/
van Mantgem, P.J., Stephenson, N.L., Byrne, J.C. Daniels, L.D., Franklin, J.F., Fule, P.Z., Harmon, M.E., Larson, A.J., Smith, J.M., Taylor, A.H. & Veblen, T.T. (2009). Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science, 323, 521-524.
--Danica Schaffer-Smith
Wednesday, May 5, 2010
Fearless Punctuation Tip - The Collaborative Colon
For the next tip in our Fearless Punctuation Series, we reveal the hidden power of the colon to emphasize and elaborate. We encourage you to use the colon daringly, yet sparingly, to spice up your writing.
H.W. Fowler said that the colon “delivers the goods that have been invoiced in the preceding words,” which is as apt a description as any! More specifically, colons introduce the part of a sentence that exemplifies, restates, elaborates, undermines, explains or balances the preceding statement. Most importantly, that ‘preceding statement’ must always be an independent clause capable of standing alone. Never use a colon after a sentence fragment.
~Main Uses~
A writer may use a colon after an independent clause to direct the reader’s attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.
Examples
List
The Bren School’s MESM core curriculum includes the following fall courses: Ecology of Managed Ecosystems, Earth Systems Science, Introduction to Environmental Policy Analysis, and Business and the Environment.
Appositive
When examined in this way, climate change is a violation of nature: an appalling mistake.
Quotation
Consider the words of P.J. O’Rourke: “The college idealists who fill the ranks of the environmental movement seem willing to do absolutely anything to save the biosphere, except take science courses and learn something about it.”
A colon may also be used between independent clauses if the second clause summarizes or explains the first.
Example
The environmental assessment was correct: most of the habitat had been destroyed.
Note: When an independent clause follows a colon, it may begin with a lowercase or a capital letter.
~Other More Perfunctory Uses~
The colon is also used after a salutation in a formal greeting letter, to indicate hours and minutes, to show proportions, between a title and subtitle, and in certain conventions in bibliographic entries (volume: page number, city: publisher, etc.).
Examples
Dear Ms. Helfer:
9:30 a.m.
The standard ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in marine systems is 16:1.
Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation
Boston: Bedford, 1999.
~Avoid Mis-use~
As mentioned above, a colon MUST be preceded by an independent clause.
Avoid using a colon between a verb and its object or complement.
Some important nutrients in aquatic systems are: phosphorus and nitrogen. (Incorrect)
Some important nutrients in aquatic systems are phosphorus and nitrogen. (Correct)
Avoid using a colon between a preposition and its object.
Particulate matter (PM10) pollution consists of: very small liquid and solid particles floating in the air. (Incorrect)
Particulate matter (PM10) pollution consists of very small liquid and solid particles floating in the air. (Correct)
Avoid using a colon after "such as," "including," or "for example."
The Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve is home to native plant species such as: Arctostaphylos purissima and Ceanothus cuneatus var. fascicularis. (Incorrect)
The Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve is home to native plant species such as Arctostaphylos purissima and Ceanothus cuneatus var. fascicularis. (Correct)
~References~
Hacker, D. 1999. A Writer’s Reference. Fourth Edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Jeantheau, M. 2010. Funny Environmental Quotes. Grinning Planet. Web. http://www.grinningplanet.com/environmental-quotes/funny-environmental-quotes.htm
Truss, L. 2003. Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. Gotham Books: New York City.
--Audrey Tresham
H.W. Fowler said that the colon “delivers the goods that have been invoiced in the preceding words,” which is as apt a description as any! More specifically, colons introduce the part of a sentence that exemplifies, restates, elaborates, undermines, explains or balances the preceding statement. Most importantly, that ‘preceding statement’ must always be an independent clause capable of standing alone. Never use a colon after a sentence fragment.
~Main Uses~
A writer may use a colon after an independent clause to direct the reader’s attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.
Examples
List
The Bren School’s MESM core curriculum includes the following fall courses: Ecology of Managed Ecosystems, Earth Systems Science, Introduction to Environmental Policy Analysis, and Business and the Environment.
Appositive
When examined in this way, climate change is a violation of nature: an appalling mistake.
Quotation
Consider the words of P.J. O’Rourke: “The college idealists who fill the ranks of the environmental movement seem willing to do absolutely anything to save the biosphere, except take science courses and learn something about it.”
A colon may also be used between independent clauses if the second clause summarizes or explains the first.
Example
The environmental assessment was correct: most of the habitat had been destroyed.
Note: When an independent clause follows a colon, it may begin with a lowercase or a capital letter.
~Other More Perfunctory Uses~
The colon is also used after a salutation in a formal greeting letter, to indicate hours and minutes, to show proportions, between a title and subtitle, and in certain conventions in bibliographic entries (volume: page number, city: publisher, etc.).
Examples
Dear Ms. Helfer:
9:30 a.m.
The standard ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in marine systems is 16:1.
Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation
Boston: Bedford, 1999.
~Avoid Mis-use~
As mentioned above, a colon MUST be preceded by an independent clause.
Avoid using a colon between a verb and its object or complement.
Some important nutrients in aquatic systems are: phosphorus and nitrogen. (Incorrect)
Some important nutrients in aquatic systems are phosphorus and nitrogen. (Correct)
Avoid using a colon between a preposition and its object.
Particulate matter (PM10) pollution consists of: very small liquid and solid particles floating in the air. (Incorrect)
Particulate matter (PM10) pollution consists of very small liquid and solid particles floating in the air. (Correct)
Avoid using a colon after "such as," "including," or "for example."
The Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve is home to native plant species such as: Arctostaphylos purissima and Ceanothus cuneatus var. fascicularis. (Incorrect)
The Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve is home to native plant species such as Arctostaphylos purissima and Ceanothus cuneatus var. fascicularis. (Correct)
~References~
Hacker, D. 1999. A Writer’s Reference. Fourth Edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Jeantheau, M. 2010. Funny Environmental Quotes. Grinning Planet. Web. http://www.grinningplanet.com/environmental-quotes/funny-environmental-quotes.htm
Truss, L. 2003. Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. Gotham Books: New York City.
--Audrey Tresham
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